THE RED SUMMER OF 1919

African Jamaican poet Claude McKay was born in Clarendon, Jamaica on September 15, 1889 and immigrated to the USA in 1912. He wrote and published "If We Must Die" in 1919 during the "Red Summer."

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On Sunday July 27, 1919, Eugene Williams a 17 year old African American youth was drowned by a White mob. He was with friends in Lake Michigan when they crossed the “imaginary segregation line” between the “White” and “Colored” beach. A White mob drowned the 17 year old by attacking him with rocks/stones. White police officers refused to arrest the White men identified by African American eyewitnesses. Instead the police arrested an African American man about whom a White person complained. This injustice and inequitable treatment while a 17 year old African American lay lifeless after a brutal and vicious attack by a White mob, set off a three day slaughter of African Americans in Chicago. White gangs roamed African American neighbourhoods attacking African American men, women, children and property with the tacit approval of law enforcement who were all White. It was felt that White police engaged in this criminal activity also.

The stoning and killing of Williams occurred after he and a group of friends were on a makeshift raft that drifted into the area White people considered their territory of the Lake Michigan area. Sunday July 27, 1919 was a scorcher supposedly 96 degrees in the shade! African American and White people headed to the beach on that day for relief from the heat. When the White men began to pelt the African American teenagers whose raft had inadvertently drifted into the “White waters” the teenage boys abandoned the raft and swam to safety except Williams who could not swim. His companions could not rescue him from the onslaught of murderous White stoning because their lives would have been endangered. Members of the “Hamburg Athletic Club” a White supremacist Irish-American organization were identified as the instigators of the White mob stoning and killing of Williams.

The summer of 1919 would become known as “Red Summer” because of the amount of African American blood spilt through murderous attacks by Whites throughout the USA. African Americans were attacked and killed by Whites throughout the USA including Washington, D.C.; Knoxville, Tennessee; Longview, Texas; Phillips County, Arkansas; Omaha, Nebraska and Chicago, Illinois. The indiscriminate killing of African Americans by Whites prompted African Jamaican poet Claude McKay to write and publish his famous poem “If We Must Die” in which he wrote:

“If we must die—let it not be like hogs

Hunted and penned in an inglorious spot,

While round us bark the mad and hungry dogs,

Making their mock at our accursed lot.

If we must die—oh, let us nobly die,

So that our precious blood may not be shed

In vain; then even the monsters we defy

Shall be constrained to honor us though dead!

Oh, Kinsmen! We must meet the common foe;

Though far outnumbered, let us show us brave,

And for their thousand blows deal one deathblow!

What though before us lies the open grave?

Like men we’ll face the murderous, cowardly pack,

Pressed to the wall, dying, but fighting back!”

The poem first published in July 1919 was subsequently published in McKay's 1922 collection “Harlem Shadows.”

McKay who at the time lived in Harlem New York urged African Americans under attack, outnumbered and outgunned, to fight back. The African-American population in Chicago as elsewhere in the USA was outnumbered and outgunned by Whites who had superior weapons and were supported by well-armed White paramilitary organizations.

During that dreadful “Red Summer” when Whites indiscriminately slaughtered African Americans in towns, counties and large cities at least 52 African-Americans were lynched and burned to death. Hundreds of African-Americans were killed and thousands were injured. Tens of thousands were forced to flee their homes and workplaces throughout the USA. African American communities were devastated by the ethnic cleansing of “Red Summer 1919.” White mobs including sailors on leave, immigrant slaughterhouse workers and southern farmers felt free to attack and kill African Americans.

In 2017 although there have not been gangs of Whites targeting African Americans burning their homes and businesses and killing them there has been a decades long targeting of Africans in North America by various police forces. African Canadians are targeted through the egregious practice of “carding” in Toronto and other cities. The most recent atrocity committed against an African Canadian male youth made the news very recently when a White police officer and his brother were charged after they reportedly beat a 19 year old causing extensive damage to his face including the loss of his left eye.

Beginning on July 27, 1919 groups of White people spent three days freely roaming the streets of Chicago dragging African Americans out of their cars, their homes, their workplaces and even off public transportation, beating and killing them at will. That was 98 years ago. With the new American regime in place and some of the bold instances of anti-Black/anti-African racism displayed on YouTube, Facebook and other online venues, caution and vigilance must be exercised to prevent the possibility of a “Red Summer” in the 21^st century.

Red Summer 1919 Omaha

Red Summer 1919 Chicago

Red Summer 1919 Chicago a white mob drags an African American man off public transportation.

Red Summer 1919 a white mob attacks the vehicle of an African American family before dragging them out.

HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY HAILE SELASSIE I

Throughout history, it has been the inaction of those who could have acted; the indifference of those who should have known better; the silence of the voice of justice when it mattered most; that has made it possible for evil to triumph.
Quote from Ethiopia’s Emperor, His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I

One of Africa’s most significant historical figures was born 125 years ago on July 23, 1892. The child who was born Tafari Makonnen was also given the name Haile Selassie at his christening. Born in Ejersa Goro, in the Harar province of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) he was the son of Ras Makonnen Woldemikael Gudessa, the governor of Harar and Woyzero Yeshimebet Ali Abajifar. His paternal grandmother, Princess Tenagnework Sahle Selassie, was an aunt of Emperor Menelik II. On November 2, 1930 in a ceremony of great pomp and splendour His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia with titles including Lord of Lords, King of Kings, Conquering Lion of the tribe of Judah, Elect of God. The Ethiopian royal family traced its roots back to Makeda Queen of Sheba and King Solomon whose story appear in First Kings chapter 10 verses 1-13 and Second Chronicles chapter 9 verses 1–12 of the King James version of the Bible. The coronation of His Imperial Majesty was attended by leaders or representatives of 72 countries www.youtube.com/watch?v=KyyLOgs190Y

Ethiopia and His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I fired the imagination of countless Africans in the Diaspora. Ethiopia as the sole African nation that had never been colonized by Europeans was a beacon of hope for those who had been separated from the continent for generations and knew that Europeans had carved up the continent to exploit the people and resources of the continent. Ethiopia was the Promised Land for those generations who had been born of enslaved Africans and only knew of Ethiopia from what they had read in the Bible. Since most Africans in the Diaspora had been Christianized, the Bible and what it contained was of paramount importance. The messages in the Bible comforted generations who had forgotten that their ancestors had been forced to accept Christianity. As a very spiritual people Africans adopted and adapted Christianity. When the white supremacists sought to convince Africans that they were less than human they could read in the Bible that Africans had been included in this Christian holy book since Ethiopia and Ethiopians are mentioned in several meaningful ways. Ethiopia being one of the earliest nations to embrace Christianity was also highly regarded by Africans in the Diaspora.

Apart from the Queen of Sheba, Ethiopia and Ethiopians are mentioned in the King James Version of the Bible several times. In Numbers chapter 12, verse 1, we read that Moses married an Ethiopian woman much to the displeasure of his siblings Aaron and Miriam. If as in some cases European Christians tried to make Ethiopians white there was proof in the Bible that this was not so. In Jeremiah 13, 23 the question is asked “Can the Ethiopian change his skin, or the leopard his spots?” We could also read about African royalty: Tirhakah king of Ethiopia is mentioned in Isaiah 37, 9. In Psalms 68, 31 “Princes shall come out of Egypt; Ethiopia shall soon stretch out her hands unto God.” Chronicles 2, 16, 8 has documented proof of the might of Africans in those ancient times: “Were not the Ethiopians and the Lubims a huge host, with very many chariots and horsemen?” and also in 2 Chronicles chapter 14 verse 9 “And there came out against them Zerah the Ethiopian with an host of a thousand thousand, and three hundred chariots; and came unto Mareshah.”

In 1993 William R. Scott published The Sons of Sheba's Race: African-Americans and the Italo-Ethiopian War, 1935-1941 where he documents the support that many African Americans gave to Ethiopians when the Italians attempted for the second time to colonize Ethiopia. In 1994 Joseph E. Harris published African-American Reactions to War in Ethiopia 1936-1941 where he discusses the efforts of African Americans to support Ethiopia. African Americans lobbied the reluctant United States government to support Ethiopians as they struggled to maintain their independence and freedom from the Italians who were brutally attacking Ethiopians in a desperate effort to claim the country as their colony.

In doing research for this article I read several other books about His Imperial Majesty where he was both revered and reviled. However, after all that he is still the regal figure posed in various framed photographs in my grandparents’ home whose eyes seemed to follow us around the room especially after we learned that he was descended from a common ancestor with Jesus (King David). Whatever information we may read about His Imperial Majesty or hear from people who knew him or think they knew him the fact is that he inspired generations of Africans in the Diaspora who looked to Ethiopia for proof that we are a great people capable of defending and maintaining our freedom. In his royal bearing we saw evidence that the images of Tarzan movies that sought to denigrate our heritage was just fiction and this Emperor from Ethiopia was the reality. His Imperial Majesty visited Trinidad and Tobago on April 18, 1966 for a three day visit and spoke at the Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago www.youtube.com/watch?v=XuNmCrmUO68 On April 21, 1966 he visited Jamaica where he received an overwhelming welcome as he arrived for a three day visit www.youtube.com/watch?v=8rZlVkBwgpg His Imperial Majesty visited Haiti on April 24, 1966 ending his three Caribbean island visit.

The reception that the Ethiopian Emperor His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I received when he visited the Caribbean islands in 1966 and the support from Africans in the Diaspora when Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1936 proves that there is hope for us to unite as African people. This hope of unity was demonstrated at the Forum that took place on July 18, 2010 at OISE where members of the African Canadian community and allies attended and began organizing to address the issue of racial profiling. Since then there have been several initiatives organized by African Canadians to address the egregious practice of targeting African Canadians by police. We refuse to be inactive and allow the evil of racial profiling (in the education system, justice system, health system etc.,) to silence the voice of justice.

THE FIRST BLACK POWER CONFERENCE WAS HELD 50 YEARS AGO ON JULY 20-1967

On July 20, 1967 the first Black Power Conference was held in Newark, New Jersey. The National Conference on Black Power was the first formal large-scale gathering to discuss issues that affected the Pan-African community. The Conference was a three-day (July 20 to July 23, 1967) gathering that focused on the oppression that Africans experienced and the possible solutions. More than 1,000 delegates representing 286 organizations and institutions from 126 cities in 26 states, plus Bermuda and Nigeria attended the 3 day Conference. Organizations involved included the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP,) The Urban League and the Organization of Afro-American Unity.

Many younger African Americans were disenchanted with the “non-violent” movement which saw Africans brutalized by White police and White civilians alike. The images on television of African American men, women and children brutalized by White police, bitten by police dogs and cheered on by White civilians was a regular traumatizing sight. These images were also broadcast internationally yet the American government was slow in addressing these atrocities and some African American leaders were satisfied in continuing with a “non-violent” resistance. Others were “not having it!” Fed up with the continued brutalizing and even killing of African American men, women and children there was a shift in the thinking of how to confront the continued White supremacist attacks against unarmed African Americans.

The Conference was chaired by Dr. Nathan Wright, Jr., (an Episcopal minister) who published "Ready to Riot" in 1968. Dr. Wright thought that integration was "an insult on its face" because of the implication that the worth of African Americans was determined by the presence of White people in their lives. He preferred to see the empowerment of African Americans. In 1967 Dr. Wright said that “Black Power” depended "on the capacity of black people to be and to become themselves, not only for their own good, but for the enrichment of the lives of all." He also felt that: "People who are members of a majority group, however sympathetic they may be with those who are oppressed, can never fully identify themselves with the oppressed."
 
The “Black Power” movement encouraged African Americans to speak out and fight for empowerment. Many African Americans felt that this was the way to achieve justice. African American artists, athletes, intellectuals and politicians joined the movement, including heavyweight champion Muhammed Ali. On April 28, 1967, Ali refused to be inducted into the armed forces on both religious and political grounds. On June 20, 1967, Ali was convicted of draft evasion, sentenced to five years in prison, fined $10,000 and banned from boxing for 3 years.
 

The “National Conference on Black Power” included workshops and lectures for participants to create solutions to the escalating issues that plagued Africans. The workshops and presentations focused on strategies to support African American control of their environment. Participants developed more than 80 resolutions emphasizing Black power in political, economic, and cultural affairs. Coordinators of the workshops were African American activists including Florynce “Flo” Kennedy, Ossie Davis, James Farmer, Hoyt Fuller, Nathan Hare, Maulana Karenga, Cleveland Sellers and Chuck Stone.

The Black Power Manifesto was the official document that came out of the Conference. The Manifesto condemned “neo-colonialist control” of African populations and called for the circulation of a “philosophy of Blackness.” The document cited historical Pan-African movements, work and activists including the Honourable Marcus Mosiah Garvey and Garveyism. The Manifesto demanded the end of “neo-colonialist control” of African populations across the globe and the promotion of a “philosophy of Blackness.”

The Manifesto is reproduced in full in the 1977 published book “Black Separatism and Social Reality: Rhetoric and Reason” edited by Raymond L. Hall. The appendix of the Manifesto states: “Black people who live under imperialist governments in America, Asia, Africa and Latin America stand at the crossroads of either an expanding revolution or ruthless extermination.” That still holds true today in the 21st century with the number of Africans in North America who are regularly killed by police who suffer no consequences.

Following the 1967 Conference, other conferences were held in 1968 and 1969. The conferences supported the growth of Black Power organizations and activism that flourished well into the 1980s and included the anti-apartheid movement. In the 21st century supporting activists who protest anti-Black racism and work to dismantle White supremacy is very important to our survival. The activism of groups and individuals led to the United Nations declaring 2015-2024 the International Decade for People of African Descent (http://www.un.org/en/events/africandescentdecade/background.shtml) with the recognition that: “Whether as descendants of the victims of the transatlantic slave trade or as more recent migrants, they constitute some of the poorest and most marginalized groups. Studies and findings by international and national bodies demonstrate that people of African descent still have limited access to quality education, health services, housing and social security.”

NELSON MANDELA JULY 18-2017

I was called a terrorist yesterday, but when I came out of jail, many people embraced me, including my enemies, and that is what I normally tell other people who say those who are struggling for liberation in their country are terrorists. I tell them that I was also a terrorist yesterday, but, today, I am admired by the very people who said I was one.

Quote from Nelson Mandela on Larry King Live, May 16, 2000

Rolihlahla Mandela was born on July 18th, 1918 in Mvezo, a village in the Mtata district of South Africa. His parents were Gadla Mphakanyisawa, the chief of Mvezo and his wife Nosekeni. Mandela is a member of the Thembu people of the Xhosa nation. In his autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom, Mandela details the history of his ancestry. That is something most Africans in the Diaspora cannot do because of the legacy of slavery. In Long Walk to Freedom he explains; “Each Xhosa belongs to a clan that traces its descent back to a specific forefather. I am a member of the Madiba clan, named after a Thembu chief who ruled in the Transkei in the eighteenth century. I am often addressed as Madiba, my clan name, a term of respect.”

When Mandela was an infant his father was stripped of his hereditary chieftainship by a white colonial magistrate. Chief Gadla Mphakanyisawa of Mvezo did not recognize the assumed power of the white interloper settlers in his country and he suffered for that principled stand. Refusing to accept that the magistrate representing the king of England had any legitimate power over him, he was charged with insubordination. In Long Walk to Freedom Mandela writes; “There was no inquiry or investigation; that was reserved for white civil servants. The magistrate simply deposed my father, thus ending the Mandela family chieftainship. My father who was a wealthy nobleman by the standards of his time, lost both his fortune and his title. He was deprived of most of his herd and land and the revenue that came with them.” His family was forced to move to Qunu, the village where Mandela spent his childhood.

Mandela was educated by his people before he entered the white supremacist school system when he was seven years old. He has written that the education he received was a British education, in which British ideas, British culture, British institutions, were automatically assumed to be superior. On his first day of school he was given the name “Nelson” to replace his African name, Rolihlahla. The education Mandela received in the British education system is obviously not the education which inspired him to become a leader in the African National Congress (ANC). The education he received from his community before he entered the education system came from his father who refused to abandon the traditions of his people. “My father remained aloof from Christianity and instead reserved his own faith for the great spirit of the Xhosas, Qamata, the God of his fathers.”

Mandela wrote about the influence of the stories his mother told him as well as the history of his people that he learned from an elder griot, Chief Joyi. “Chief Joyi railed against the white man, who he believed had deliberately sundered the Xhosa tribe, dividing brother from brother. The white man had told the Thembus that their true chief was the great white queen across the ocean and that they were her subjects. But the white queen brought nothing but misery and perfidy to the black people, and if she was a chief she was an evil chief. Chief Joyi's war stories and his indictment of the British made me feel angry and cheated, as though I had already been robbed of my own birthright. Chief Joyi said that the African people lived in relative peace until the coming of the abelungu, the white people, who arrived from across the sea with fire-breathing weapons. Once, he said, the Thembu, the Mpondo, the Xhosa, and the Zulu were all children of one father, and lived as brothers. The white man shattered the ubuntu, the fellowship, of the various tribes. The white man was hungry and greedy for land, and the black man shared the land with him as they shared the air and water; land was not for man to possess. But the white man took the land as you might seize another man's horse.” The queen referred to in Chief Joyi’s reminiscences was Victoria who ruled the British Empire, including the African countries that had been colonized, from 1837 to 1901.

In spite of the British education he received at the several schools he attended, Mandela was educated in the knowledge of his people’s system of governance partly through his father’s involvement with the Thembu royal family. “My father has sometimes been referred to as the prime minister of Thembuland during the reigns of Dalindyebo, the father of Sabata, who ruled in the early 1900s and that of his son, Jongintaba, who succeeded him. As a respected and valued counselor to both kings, he accompanied them on their travels and was usually to be found by their sides during important meetings with government officials. He was an acknowledged custodian of Xhosa history and it was partially for that reason that he was a valued adviser.”

Refusing to be contented living as a second class citizen in the country of his birth cost Mandela dearly. In his struggle to ensure the human and civil rights for Africans in South Africa, Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment on June 11 1964 where he remained until February 11th, 1990. He was not allowed to attend his mother’s funeral in 1968 or the funeral of his eldest son Thembekile who died in a car accident in 1969. Spending almost three decades in prison, Mandela may well have been forgotten by the world except that the amazing woman he had married shortly before being sentenced to life imprisonment would not allow that to happen. Mandela has acknowledged the role that Nomzamo “Winnie” Madikizela-Mandela played in the anti-apartheid struggle. “My former wife is a remarkable person whom I respect even today. She suffered a great deal and kept the name Mandela alive when I was in jail. She also looked after my children and played a very prominent role in the struggle.” In “Part of My Soul Went With Him” published in 1985, Madikizela-Mandela documented that struggle including the years of police brutality, false imprisonment and harassment by the white supremacist culture of the minority settler community of whites in South Africa.

Since Mandela’s release from prison and his election as South Africa’s first legitimate President, the world has celebrated his capacity for forgiveness and reconciliation. He has received accolades, honorary degrees and statues have been erected in his honour. A birthday celebration to recognize his 90th birthday was held at Hyde Park in London, England on Friday, June 27, 2008. I wonder how many of those at the birthday party had once labelled Mandela a terrorist when he was fighting for the freedom of his people.

Mandela transitioned and joined the ancestors on December 5, 2013. He would have been 99 years old today Tuesday July 18, 2017.

SUMMER READING

“To stand and fight together: Richard Pierpoint and the Coloured Corps of Upper Canada”


It is already the third week of July and 3 weeks since the end of the 2016-2017 school year. Summer is my favourite time of the year with warm days and bright sunshine most days from 6:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. There is so much to do with several festivals hosted by the city of Toronto and various organizations and communities. It is also the time of year when I can enjoy one of my favourite activities (reading) outdoors. During this time of the year although there is no formal education children should be encouraged to read. Whatever your children’s interests there are books that they would enjoy reading. Research has shown that the effects of “summer reading loss” can have a negative impact on the education of students. “Summer reading loss” sometimes referred to as the “summer slide” is the result of children not reading for most of the two months away from formal education.


According to the authors of a report from the National Summer Learning Association: "A conservative estimate of lost instructional time is approximately two months or roughly 22 percent of the school year.... It's common for teachers to spend at least a month re-teaching material that students have forgotten over the summer. That month of re-teaching eliminates a month that could have been spent on teaching new information and skills." Sociologists Karl Alexander and Doris Entwisle have shown that the cumulative effect of summer learning differences is a primary cause of widening achievement gaps between students of lower and higher socioeconomic levels. Research demonstrates that while student achievement for both middle- and lower-income students improves at similar rates during the school year, low-income students experience cumulative summer learning losses throughout their elementary school years.”


Reading is an excellent summer activity especially for our children and young people who are out of school and away from formal education for the next month. Encourage the children to read for fun and to learn about our heroes and sheroes, those well known, little known and unsung. One of those heroes Dr Daniel Hale Williams (January 18, 1856 – August 4, 1931) made history when he performed the first successful heart surgery on July 9, 1893. His achievements were extraordinary for an African American who was born before slavery was abolished in the USA on January 31, 1865. Dr Hale Williams received his medical degree from the Chicago Medical College in 1883 and established the Provident Hospital and Training School on May 4, 1891. I could only find three books written for children about Dr Hale Williams: “The heart man: Dr. Daniel Hale Williams” by Louise Meriwether published in 1972, “Sure Hands, Strong Heart: The Life of Daniel Hale Williams” by Lillie Patterson published in 1981 and “Daniel Hale Williams: Surgeon Who Opened Hearts and Minds (Getting to Know the World's Greatest Inventors and Scientists)” by Mike Venezia published in 2010. Unfortunately, none of these books are available at the Toronto Public Library (TPL.)
However this is a good time to practice Ujamaa (Co-operative economics) the 4th principle of the Nguzo Saba (7 principles) of Kwanzaa. Practicing Ujamaa means supporting businesses owned by members of our community. In the 1997 published book “Kwanzaa: A Celebration of Family, Community and Culture” Dr. Maulana Karenga defines the practice of Ujamaa as: "To build and maintain our own stores, shops and other businesses and to profit from them together." There are several bookstores owned by African Canadians where we can buy books for ourselves and our children including A Different Booklist, Knowledge Bookstore and Nile Valley Books. Now would be a good time to practice Ujamaa by visiting these bookstores and buying books for your children, yourself, your relatives and friends.


Good news! The TPL has several children’s books about the little known history of Africans in Canada including "Mathieu Da Costa: First to Arrive" by Itah Sadu published 2009, “The children of Africville" by Christine Welldon published 2009, Last Days in Africville” by Dorothy Perkyns published 2003, “To stand and fight together: Richard Pierpoint and the Coloured Corps of Upper Canada” by Steve Pitt published 2008, “The kids book of Black Canadian history” by Rosemary Sadlier published 2003, “The Black Canadians: their history and contributions by Velma Carter” published 1993, “Viola Desmond Won’t be budged” by Jody Warner published 2010, “Crossing to freedom” by Virginia Frances Schwartz published 2010 and “John Ware” by Ian Hundey published 2006. Early reading for enjoyment and appreciation can lead to a lifetime of willingness to continue reading and learning. Taking children to the library to borrow books that are age appropriate is a good way to start the love of reading.

Buying books that children can keep at home is also encouragement to enjoy reading. Apart from supporting our community bookstores by visiting these bookstores our children can learn that there are other ways to make a living besides working for other people. It might encourage them to become entrepreneurs and we do need that in our community. Even if you have young pre-school children it is important that they are introduced to books: “Early childhood educators and neurologists agree that the first eight years are a critical time of brain development. Infants come into the world with a brain waiting to be woven into the complex fabric of the mind. Some neurons in the brain are wired before birth, but many are waiting to be programmed by early experiences. The early environment where young children live will help determine the direction of their brain development. Children who have severely limited opportunities for appropriate experiences will be delayed; this may permanently affect their learning. But, children who have the opportunity to develop in an organized and appropriate environment are challenged to think and use materials in new ways.” Enjoy the great summer weather and the summer festivals, read with your children and encourage them to read.

AUGUST HOLIDAYS/ SUMMER HOLIDAYS PART 2

“No more Latin, no more French, no more sitting on teacher old bench” was a chant often heard in the Guyana of my youth at the end of the school year. For the entire month of August, part of July and part of September there was no school. Not surprisingly it used to be a grave insult to suggest to any Guyanese man, woman or child that they must have attended school in August. Since there is no school in August the assumption would be that the person who was told that they had attended school in August was uneducated/unintelligent. The time of year was popularly referred to as “August holidays” and many families packed up and moved across the country to spend time with relatives. Berbicians who had relatives in Demerara or Essequibo would send their children to visit for a few weeks and vice versa. My siblings and I visited relatives at interesting places like Courtland, Fyrish, Linden, Sandvoort and Wismar and they visited us at the many interesting places where we lived including Agricola, Kitty and Wortmanville. The Rupununi was a bit of a distance from most of our relatives so there was not much visiting when we lived there.

The several weeks away from formal education during the “August holidays” seemed like a magical time when we traveled by train from Georgetown to Rosignol along the East coast of Demerara and the West coast of Berbice. During those travels I received my earliest science lessons from my parents explaining how the MV Torani (ferry boat) was able to stay afloat with passengers and vehicles as it crossed the Berbice River taking us from Rosignol to New Amsterdam. History lessons about the people of Buxton (East coast Demerara) who stopped the British governor’s train (as it attempted to travel past Buxton) and demanded fair treatment from the colonial government were also part of our journey.

Spending time at my grandparents’ home was a history lesson in itself with the images of African royalty and landmarks like the Sankore University of Timbuktu that decorated the walls and also the many old copies of Ebony and Jet magazines that were meticulously preserved and stored for us. It was fascinating to read stories of events that took place when our grandparents were young and our parents were children. The story-telling times at night were some of the best times spent during those holiday weeks. We learnt about our ancestors who were taken from Angola, the Congo, Ghana, Nigeria etc., and the fact that some of them were first taken to places like Antigua, Brazil and Suriname before being moved (sold during slavery) or moving (after Emancipation) to Guyana. There were also very scary stories about Bacoo, Moongazer and Ol’Higue that would have us scurrying off to bed, scared to be outside after dark. As an adult I realize that those stories were told to ensure that children would not be tempted to wander away from home after dark, they were designed to keep us safe. When my children, nieces and nephews were small I tried telling them the same stories but they were not scared; they were fascinated and had so many questions that I could not answer that I eventually gave up. The scary stories did not travel well from Guyana to Canada.

Similar to the “August holidays” I enjoyed as a child in Guyana, in Toronto there are several weeks of “summer holidays” for students from elementary school and secondary schools. During the next two months unless students are attending summer school they are away from formal education and free to enjoy the summer weather without thinking about assignments and exams.

June 21 was the official beginning of summer. With the many video games and other electronic gadgets many children do not have the experience of spending quality time with their elders. This is not part of the modern North American culture. However, from speaking with older African Canadians whose families have been here for generations they recount similar experiences to mine of traveling to visit relatives in small town Ontario, Nova Scotia and British Columbia during the summers of their childhood. There they would hear from their older relatives, stories about their ancestors and the history of their communities.

In her 2005 published book “Finding Martha's Vineyard: African Americans at Home on an Island” African American author Jill Nelson writes about the enchantment of the summer vacations her family spent on Martha’s Vineyard one of the few places where middle class African Americans could escape the daily grind and living with the daily reality of racism. It was a magical place for the children whose parents could afford a summer vacation home on Martha’s Vineyard. Many other African Americans living in Northern cities choose to send their children down south to spend time with relatives. Sometimes not such a wise decision for some families including Emmett Till’s mother Mamie Till who sent her 14 year old child from Chicago to Money, Mississippi in the summer of 1955 to spend time with his great-uncle Mose Wright.

Thankfully not every family experienced the heart wrenching tragedy of the Till family. There are several delightful books of African American children enjoying their summer visits to relatives down south including Donald Crews’ “Bigmama’s” published in 1991 which tells the story of four African-American children and their mother traveling by train to visit grandparents in the rural town of Cottondale in Florida and the joy they experience spending the summer at Big Mama’s. Crews’ follow-up book “Shortcut” published in 1992 continues the story of the four children spending their summer at Big Mama’s and their alarming adventure that resulted from not following Big Mama’s safety rules.
How are you spending your summer?

AUGUST HOLIDAYS/ SUMMER HOLIDAYS PART 1

Many decades ago in the Guyana of my youth one of the worst insults that could be levelled at any Guyanese was to say to them: "Like you went to School August Month!" Those words could become "fighting" words because they would mean that the person to whom the insult was levelled was a "dunce." In those days being a "dunce" was considered a shame. Education was highly prized by Guyanese of all stripes. Because there was no school in "August Month" telling someone "Like you went to School August Month!" meant that you were suggesting they never attended school which meant they were illiterate, uneducated and possibly unintelligent or "stupidy."

The “August holidays” which began mid July and ended mid September was a much anticipated time because we were free from “formal” education. However some form of “formal” education continued for those who had to sit the “Common Entrance Exams” the following April. The “Common Entrance Exams” was the most important exams for 11 year olds in Guyana because the results determined which secondary school you would attend. At the time all the secondary schools (also kindergarten and primary schools) were operated by the Guyana government but everyone vied for those top spots. It was the days of the Linden Forbes Sampson Burnham led PNC government and education was free from kindergarten to university. The competition was fierce to get enough marks to attend Presidents College, Queens College or Bishops High School but no child of secondary school age was left behind during the Burnham era.
On the last day of school in mid July there would be gleeful shouts of “No more Latin, no more French, no more sitting on teacher old bench” as children hurried home to begin the “August holidays.” Unlike North America, Guyana does not have four seasons so there was no “summer holiday.”

Guyana has two seasons “dry season” and “rainy season” and both seasons boast similar temperatures of between 25 and 33 degrees Celsius. In the Rupununi which is the largest part of Guyana’s 83,000 square miles (where we share a border with Brazil) the night-time temperature can dip as low as 12 degrees Celsius. We were never fazed by the temperature in spite of not having access to air-conditioners. During the “August holidays” most families sent their children to visit relatives in other parts of the country for a few days or a few weeks. Sometimes one or both parents would accompany their children on these family visits to renew acquaintances with relatives they had not seen all year. It was the days before the easy access to telephones, computers and programs like Facebook and Skype.

As a child my siblings and I accompanied by our parents would visit exciting places including Courtland, Fyrish and Gibraltar on the Courentyne coast, Sandvoort up the Canje River (all villages established by Africans who bought plantation land after Emancipation .) My relatives have lived in these villages for generations (beginning in the 1840s) and it was always exciting and educational to visit. We also visited Mackenzie up the Demerara River where my mother’s older sister, her husband and daughter (they later had 3 more daughters) lived on Mora Street. My aunt had framed photographs of Africans and African Americans who were popular during her childhood and youth. I learned about Billy Eckstein, Sam Cooke, Miriam Makeba, Little Richard, Langston Hughes, Paul Robeson and Joe Louis. My aunt’s husband was more interested in Africa and would often relate the story of the Herero people who were massacred (1904-1908) by the Germans in Namibia.

Visiting my grandparents’ home in Stanleytown, Berbice was the greatest adventure because of all the old “Ebony,” “Jet” and “Tan” magazines they had collected for many years. I never got tired of reading those old magazines. The lives of African Americans were so different from the lives we led in Guyana. Some of the stories were entertaining and some were distressing. I will never forget the images of 14 year old Emmett Till killed for supposedly whistling at a White woman or the image of an obviously terrified 15 year Elizabeth Eckford stalked by a mob of White people baying for her blood, chanting “n***er” and “lynch her.” My grandparents also had the most fascinating framed photographs including those of the Ethiopian royal family with a huge framed photograph of His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I in pride of place in the living room. Mounted high on the wall as you walked into the space there he was resplendent in his ceremonial uniform and those bright piercing eyes. There were photographs of the Empress Menen proudly wearing her natural hair like a crown and pictures of the Emperor, Empress and their children together. Apart from the books and photographs my grandparents’ property had more fruit trees than anyone I knew. The fruits included oranges, gooseberries, tamarind, mangoes, tangerines, coconuts, guavas, pears and papaw. There were even a few cotton trees and it was fascinating to watch the beautiful yellow flowers become pods then the cotton popping out of the pods.

The beginning of the summer holidays being enjoyed by Toronto District School Board (TDSB) students brings back beautiful memories of “August holidays” in Guyana. I hope that my grandchildren and all TDSB students will have fond memories of the years they spend in the education system in spite of the shortcomings of the system. For two months these precious children (our future) will be away from formal education but we can ensure that they continue to be educated by encouraging reading and exploration of their culture and history. I wish every student a safe and enjoyable summer holiday/vacation.

THE SCHOMBURG CENTER FOR RESEARCH IN BLACK CULTURE IS 112 YEARS OLD

In February 1991, the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in Harlem observed the 89th birthday of the poet Langston Hughes and the beginning of African Heritage Month. Amiri Baraka and Maya Angelou celebrated by dancing!!




On July 14, 1905 the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture opened in Harlem, New York. Located at 515 Malcolm X Blvd, the Center is one of my favourite places to visit in New York City and is one of “the leading institutions focused on the experiences of people across the African Diaspora.”


The Schomburg Center is named in honour of African American activist/writer Arturo Alfonso Schomburg who was active during the Harlem Renaissance. Schomburg was born on January 24, 1874 in Puerto Rico to an African Caribbean woman from St Croix, Virgin Islands. Schomburg lived with his mother in Puerto Rico during his early life and spent part of his childhood with his mother’s extended family in St Croix. In her published 1989 book “Arthur Alfonso Schomburg: Black Bibliophile & Collector: a Biography” Elinor Des Verney Sinnette wrote: “At some point in Arturo’s childhood Mary Joseph perhaps unable to care for herself and Arturo adequately in Puerto Rico or perhaps just longing to be close to her parents left San Juan to settle in the Virgin Islands where Arturo became a member of the Nicholas Joseph family of St Croix.” According to available information Schomburg’s interest in African history was awakened by a White supremacist 5th grade teacher who said that Africans had “no history, no heroes and no great moments.” The young Schomburg was inspired to spend his life “digging up” the history of Africans to prove his 5th grade teacher wrong.


On April 17, 1891 the 17 year old Schomburg immigrated to the USA arriving in New York. He worked at various jobs for survival (including elevator operator, bellhop, printer and porter) while pursuing an education at night school. Schomburg experienced the White supremacist culture of America especially since the three women to whom he was married (at different periods of his life) were all African American women born in southern states. He travelled to those southern states to visit family during the dreadful period of the frequent lynching of African Americans (including Tulsa, Oklahoma May 1921 and Rosewood, Florida January 1923.)


Schomburg was a man before his time in his advocacy for the inclusion of African history in the curriculum. In his published work of 1913 entitled “Racial integrity: A plea for the establishment of a chair of Negro history in our schools and colleges, etc.” he urged educators to: "include the practical history of the Negro race from the dawn of civilization to the present time." He was a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP,) a cofounder of the Negro Society for Historical Research and served as president of the American Negro Academy. In 1926, Schomburg donated his collection of "more than 5,000 books; 3,000 manuscripts; 2,000 etchings and paintings; and several thousand pamphlets." Schomburg was appointed a member of the Advisory Committee responsible for overseeing the collection which was officially named "The Arthur A. Schomburg Collection of Negro Literature and Art." The Schomburg Centre has more than 10,000,000 items and is recognized as one of the leading institutions of its kind in the world. The Center has collected, preserved and provided access to materials documenting African life and has “promoted the study and interpretation of the history and culture of peoples of African descent.”


In an article entitled “The Negro Digs Up His Past” which was published in the March 1925 edition of “Survey Graphic Magazine” Schomburg wrote: “When we consider the facts, certain chapters of American history will have to be reopened. Just as Black men were influential factors in the campaign against the slave trade, so they were among the earliest instigators of the abolition movement. Indeed there was a dangerous calm between the agitation for the suppression of the slave trade and the beginning of the campaign for emancipation. During that interval colored men were very influential in arousing the attention of public men who in turn aroused the conscience of the country. Continuously between 1808 and 1845, men like Prince Saunders, Peter Williams, Absalom Jones, Nathaniel Paul, and Bishops Varick and Richard Allen, the founders of the two wings of African Methodism, spoke out with force and initiative, and men like Denmark Vesey (1822), David Walker (1828) and Nat Turner (1831) advocated and organized schemes for direct action.”
The essay inspired African American historian John Henrik Clarke (January 1, 1915-July 16, 1998) who wrote that at 17 years old (1932) he left his home in Columbus, Georgia and travelled to Harlem, New York in search of Schomburg to further his studies in African history. In an interview with “Civil Rights Journal” Clarke spoke of his meeting with Schomburg who said to him: “Sit down, son. What you are calling African history and Negro history is nothing but the missing pages of world history. You will have to know general history to understand these specific aspects of history. You have to study your oppressor. That's where your history got lost." Clarke said that Schomburg “opened up my eyes to the fact that I came from an old people, older than slavery, older than the people who oppressed us.”


On July 14, 1905 when the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture opened in Harlem, New York, Schomburg (January 24, 1874 – June 8, 1938) was a 31 year old African American living in a White supremacist society that discounted and marginalized the culture and history of Africans from the continent and the Diaspora. Schomburg dedicated his time and energy to “digging up” the history of Africans and sharing that knowledge. Today there is a plethora of knowledge available to us and our children about our history. During the beautiful summer weather visit your local library or one of our community bookstores. Read a book about African history, read to your children, buy books for your children or other people’s children. Black Lives Matter!!

JULY 1863 NEW YORK DRAFT RIOT

Children at the Colored Orphan Asylum on Fifth Avenue between Forty-Third and Forty-Fourth Streets in New York City 1863 were the target of the mob of rioting Irish and German immigrants on July 13, 1863


On Saturday July 11, 1863 the government of US President Abraham Lincoln initiated a policy of draft conscription for white males living in New York City. This was at the height of the American Civil War and followed the passage of the nation’s first military draft act in March 1863. In New York City the draft law allowed any of these white men to buy their way out of military service by paying a fee of $300 (approximately $5,500 in today’s money.) African Americans were exempted from the draft (African Americans voluntarily served throughout the Civil War) as they were not considered American citizens. Hundreds of thousands of African American men and women served in every section of the military during the Civil War. Harriet Tubman was one of the more famous names who served as a nurse and an undercover agent during that war. She is credited with leading the famous Combahee River expedition (June 2, 1863) which saved more than 700 enslaved Africans from chattel slavery when she led an expedition of 150 men in three gunboats “up the Combahee River, the object of the expedition being to take up the torpedoes placed by the rebels in the river, to destroy railroads and bridges, and to cut off supplies from the rebel troops.” On Friday, July 10, 1863 (ironically just 3 days before the murderous rampage against African Americans in New York City) on the front page of a Boston newspaper “The Commonwealth,” a report of the successful Combahee River Expedition appeared which read in part: “Col. Montgomery and his gallant band of 300 black soldiers, under the guidance of a black woman, dashed into the enemy’s country, struck a bold and effective blow, destroying millions of dollars worth of commissary stores, cotton and lordly dwellings, and striking terror into the heart of rebeldom, brought off near 800 slaves and thousands of dollars worth of property, without losing a man or receiving a scratch. It was a glorious consummation.”

Meanwhile in New York City the mostly Irish immigrant working class population was against the Civil War and by extension against the draft. They also resented the fact that African American men in New York City competed with them for jobs. Ignoring the fact that African American men living in New York City were the descendants of enslaved Africans (some of them had probably escaped slavery from others states and made their way to New York City) who had paid their dues in blood, sweat and tears and had a right to paid employment the Irish men refused to work alongside African American men. Not caring that their oppressors were other White men who owned the businesses in which they laboured the Irish immigrants (men and women) violently targeted African American men, women and children. The Conscription Act which was so hated by the Irish immigrants required all White males between the ages of 20 and 35 and all unmarried White men between 20 and 45 to serve in the military except if they paid the $300.00 dollars or could hire someone to serve in their stead. Obviously the enemies of those Whites who lived in poverty in New York City and could not afford to buy their way out of the draft were not African Americans but rich White people who could buy their way out of serving in the military. The racial violence did not begin with the Conscription/Draft Act but it was used by the White men and women in New York City to visit extreme brutality on African American men, women and children. Even before they had the excuse of being drafted into the military the Irish regularly attacked African Americans in New York City. In his 2002 published book “Ear Inn Virons: History of the New York City Landmark - James Brown House and West Soho Neighborhood” author Andrew Coe writes about an Irish gang called the “Spring Street Fencibles” who were known for “knocking down black females.” It is not clear if the Irish gang members were too cowardly to confront African American men or if the phrase “knocking down black females” has something more sinister to its meaning besides the brutality of “knocking down black females.”

On the first day of the draft Saturday, July 11, 1863 all seemed to be orderly as the implementation of the Conscription/Draft Law began in New York City. For 24 hours after (Sunday July 12) all was quiet but it was the lull before the storm. In the 2004 published book “In the Shadow of Slavery: African Americans in New York City, 1626-1863” author Leslie M. Harris writes: “On Saturday, July 11, 1863, the first lottery of the conscription law was held. For twenty-four hours the city remained quiet. On Monday, July 13, 1863, between 6 and 7 A.M., the five days of mayhem and bloodshed that would be known as the Civil War Draft Riots began. The rioters' targets initially included only military and governmental buildings, symbols of the unfairness of the draft. Mobs attacked only those individuals who interfered with their actions. But by afternoon of the first day, some of the rioters had turned to attacks on black people, and on things symbolic of black political, economic, and social power. Rioters attacked a black fruit vendor and a nine-year-old boy at the corner of Broadway and Chambers Street before moving to the Colored Orphan Asylum on Fifth Avenue between Forty-Third and Forty-Fourth Streets.” It seems that the White mob was envious of the 233 homeless and orphaned African American children housed in the “Colored Orphan Asylum” because at 4:00 p.m. on Monday July 13 on the first day of the riots they attacked the building. The White mob looted the building of “bedding, clothing, food, and other transportable articles” before setting the building on fire and watching it burn to the ground. http://history1800s.about.com/od/civilwar/ig/New-York-City-Draft-Riots/Burning-the-Orphan-s-Asylum.htm The firefighters (all White men) were apparently not able to save the building which was completely destroyed within 20 minutes. Harris writes in his “In the Shadow of Slavery: African Americans in New York City, 1626-1863” that: “John Decker, chief engineer of the fire department, was on hand, but firefighters were unable to save the building. The destruction took twenty minutes.”

The mostly Irish mob (there were some German immigrants in the mix) went on a five day rampage attacking and murdering African Americans and destroying their homes and businesses. Leslie M. Harris writes of the barbarity of the attacks in “In the Shadow of Slavery”: “In July 1863, white longshoremen took advantage of the chaos of the Draft Riots to attempt to remove all evidence of a black and interracial social life from area near the docks. Black men and black women were attacked, but the rioters singled out the men for special violence. On the waterfront, they hanged William Jones and then burned his body. White dock workers also beat and nearly drowned Charles Jackson, and they beat Jeremiah Robinson to death and threw his body in the river. Rioters also made a sport of mutilating the black men's bodies, sometimes sexually. A group of white men and boys mortally attacked black sailor William Williams—jumping on his chest, plunging a knife into him, smashing his body with stones—while a crowd of men, women, and children watched. None intervened, and when the mob was done with Williams, they cheered, pledging "vengeance on every nigger in New York." A white laborer, George Glass, rousted black coachman Abraham Franklin from his apartment and dragged him through the streets. A crowd gathered and hanged Franklin from a lamppost as they cheered for Jefferson Davis, the Confederate president. After the mob pulled Franklin's body from the lamppost, a sixteen-year-old Irish man, Patrick Butler, dragged the body through the streets by its genitals. Black men who tried to defend themselves fared no better. The crowds were pitiless. After James Costello shot at and fled from a white attacker, six white men beat, stomped, kicked, and stoned him before hanging him from a lamppost.”

In July 2017 there may not be an enactment of July 13-17, 1863 but African American men remain the target of white men whether they are wearing police uniforms in New York City practicing the infamous “stop and frisk” law or they are in Florida shooting unarmed teenagers under the infamous “stand your ground” law.

AFRICAN CANADIAN ANTI-RACISM ACTIVIST VIOLA IRENE DAVIS DESMOND

"On behalf of the Nova Scotia government, I sincerely apologize to Mrs. Viola Desmond’s family and to all African-Nova Scotians for the racial discrimination she was subjected to by the justice system in November 1946. The arrest, detainment, and conviction of Viola Desmond is an example in our history where the law was used to perpetuate racism and racial segregation - this is contrary to the values of Canadian society. We recognize today that the act for which Viola Desmond was arrested, was an act of courage, not an offence."


Excerpt from a posthumous apology by the Premier of Nova Scotia on April 15, 2010


Viola Irene Davis Desmond would have been 96 years old when the apology was made and a posthumous pardon was granted in 2010. She had been born Viola Irene Davis on July 6, 1914 in Halifax, Nova Scotia and transitioned on February 7, 1965 in New York City. Viola Irene Davis was one of 15 children born to James Albert Davis and Gwendolyn Irene Davis (née Johnson.) The official apology offered posthumously by the Premier of Nova Scotia on Thursday, April 15, 2010 was a long time coming. The apology was 64 years overdue from an incident that took place on November 8, 1946.


On November 8, 1946 the 32 year old African Canadian businesswoman was arrested at the Roseland Theatre in New Glasgow, Nova Scotia. At 32 years old Viola Desmond was a successful entrepreneur and owner of a beauty parlour and beauty school. On November 8, 1946, Desmond was traveling on business from her Halifax, Nova Scotia home when she experienced car trouble in New Glasgow, Nova Scotia. After taking her car to a garage she decided to see a movie at the Roseland Theatre. She bought a ticket for the main floor of the theatre, unaware of the theatre’s policy that the main floor was a “Whites only” seating area because unlike the blatant White supremacist Jim Crow laws of the USA, there were no “Whites” and “Colored” signs posted and she did not know that African Canadians were relegated to the balcony. When Desmond was ordered to move she replied that she could not see from the balcony, that she had paid to sit on the main floor and that she would not move.

The manager left the theatre and returned with a policeman and the two burly White men dragged the slim, 4’ 11” Desmond out of the cinema, injuring her in the process. The White supremacist culture in Canada is subtler than in the USA and Desmond was charged with defrauding the government of one cent instead of the reality of “sitting in the White people’s section” of the cinema.
 
She spent the night in jail in the same block as male prisoners. The following day she was tried and found guilty of tax evasion. The sentence was 30 days in jail or a fine of $20, plus $6 to the manager of the theatre. She paid the fine and then challenged the guilty verdict in the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia. Desmond was supported in her struggle for justice by fellow African Canadian and civil rights activist Carrie Best who publicized the case in “The Clarion” newspaper. “The Clarion” was established in 1946 and was the first African Canadian owned and published newspaper in Nova Scotia.

In spite of their efforts and the support of the Nova Scotia Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NSAACP) the Supreme Court of Nova Scotia upheld the guilty verdict. Desmond remained guilty of defrauding the government of one cent until April 15, 2010 when she was granted a posthumous pardon. Viola Desmond’s case did not receive much publicity outside of Nova Scotia, unlike the similar case of Rosa Parks to whom she is compared although her struggle took place more than 9 years before Parks’ case. Desmond’s story has been told in several books including “Sister to Courage” published in 2010 by Desmond’s younger sister Wanda Robson.

Desmond was honoured with a Canadian postage stamp, her name on a ship and in 2018 her image will appear on the Canadian 10 dollar bill. In spite of this most Canadians know more about Rosa Parks than they do about Viola Desmond. This is because of the covert/undercover nature of Canada’s White supremacist culture and the myth of a successful Canadian multiculturalism.

The history that is taught in the education system is Eurocentric not multicultural. We know about the enslavement of Africans in the USA since it is well documented but in Canada a discussion about the enslavement of Africans is mostly about those who fled slavery in the USA and sought refuge in Canada. We do know the names of some of the Africans who resisted their enslavement in Canada including Chloe Cooley, Marie Joseph Angelique, Peggy Pompadour and others whose names appear in “for sale” advertisements and bounty hunter type advertisements. Some Africans enslaved in Canada fled south of the border to states in the USA where slavery was abolished (e.g. Vermont 1777) before slavery was abolished in Canada on August 1, 1834.


The resistance of enslaved Africans contributed significantly to the abolition of slavery. Viola Desmond did not win her case but her fight encouraged successive generations to continue the fight. In the 21st century the struggle continues on various fronts and freedom fighters emerge regularly. Like Desmond they may not win their battle but they inspire successive generations to continue the struggle. Black Lives Matter!!